The Departed Analysis Essay Example for Free

The Departed Analysis Essay The Departed is a film directed by Martin Scorsese which won numerous awards at the 79th annual Academy Awards. Scorsese has directed many films that have won academy awards but he had never achieved the award for the best director. This changed with the 2006 release of The Departed and Scorsese got what he had ached for so many years. This film was indeed a film that I enjoyed watching. However it also got me thinking what role ethics played in this blockbuster. During the beginning of the movie Jack Nicholson adopts Matt Damon and treats him like his own child. Damon wants to be a priest when he grows up. If you’re a priest you most likely won’t kill anyone even if it is for self defense because killing is a sin. However being the clever genius that Nicholson is asks Matt Damon â€Å"when you’re facing end of a loaded barrel, what difference does it make? † Nicholson’s character, Frank Costello adopts Damon’s character, Sullivan mainly for personal intelligence purposes. He wants to have a mole in the SIU department like the government has moles in the Mafia families. The best person suitable for this job would be someone that you have raised as your own because the trust will always be there. Nicholson shows good ethics when he takes Damon under his wing. However as the movie progresses we find the true motive for the adoption. Nicholson wants someone who he can trust, that can keep him one step ahead of the law which is morally wrong. When Leonardo DiCaprio’s character Costigan is training for the job of a police officer he is denied the job due to his family ties to the Boston underworld. Costigan is really a good guy affiliated with a bad name. Vice versa Damon is a bad guy affiliated with a good name. Jobs shouldn’t be lost because of someone’s family affiliation with certain groups especially if the person applying wants to change all that and has the knowledge and the will power to do so. I understand the phrase â€Å"like father, like son† but that isn’t always necessarily true. The world is not just black and white; it has shades of grey in it as well. Later in the movie we find that Frank Costello himself is a possible informant for the FBI and that he has recorded conversations of himself talking about illegal activities with Matt Damon. He has done this as a precaution incase the FBI indicts him in an even more serious case. If the FBI does indict him he will use the tapes as a leverage to get a reduced sentence or immunity. This is not very ethical because he adopted a son for his own freedom from government agencies. Towards the end of the movie it is really ironic that Jack Nicholson dies by what he told Damon so that he wouldn’t become a priest. â€Å"When you’re facing the end of a loaded barrel, what difference does it make? † Matt Damon was facing the loaded barrel of Nicholson’s gun but Damon got to pull the trigger first. Because of Nicholson’s bad ethics he got what he deserved by getting shot by his own adopted son whom he used for pure personal protection from government agencies. In the final scene of the movie when Matt Damon is shot dead by Mark Wahlberg it was unethical of Wahlberg to shoot Damon. He should have gathered evidence for a trial by a jury. However I think the murder was justified and fair for a better society. He could have played by the rules. But since Matt Damon didn’t play by the rules why should Mark Wahlberg.

Psychological Basis Of Behavior Essay Example for Free

Psychological Basis Of Behavior Essay Until recently the causes of psychological disorders were not so clearly defined. Then advanced imaging techniques made it possible to see various areas of the brain and pinpoint areas that control behavior. It has been long known that the brain uses chemical messengers called neurotransmitters for signaling during its various processes. Advances in neuromedicine revealed that a lot of neurological and psychological disorders have a basis in imbalances between various neurotransmitters in the brain. Diseases like Parkinson’s, Schizophrenia and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder are only a few where administering drugs that controlled levels of various neurotransmitters in the brain could control the disease symptoms and in some cases even provide a cure. Indeed, it was the discovery of these pharmacological agents that led to the discovery of newer agents that could control various neurological disorders by manipulating levels of neurotransmitters. Development of various drugs for schizophrenia was done on the basis of the fact that they had the ability to block dopamine receptors. In addition it was noticed that there was also an increased number of dopamine receptors present in these patients1. Similarly, in patients who suffered form Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) an abnormality in the neurotransmitter serotonin was implicated and it was shown that drug therapy that did not affect 5-HT receptors was ineffective in the treatment of OCD6. Parkinson’s disease like schizophrenia also is due to an abnormality in dopamine levels but in Parkinson’s dopamine levels become depleted4. Parkinson’s disease is a movement disorder caused by the depletion of dopamine produced in the substantia nigra, a part of the brain that is responsible for voluntary movements of the body11. Parkinson’s disease is a neurodegenerative disease that affects 1% of the population. Its pathophysiology involves degeneration of substantia nigra. This portion is responsible for movements in the body. Various hypotheses have been proposed concerning the causes of the disease and include genetic factors, environmental factors and viruses. Amongst these genetic factors are considered the most important and mutations in various genes have been identified that are linked to Parkinson’s disease. Genes that have been implicated are PINK-1, DJ-1, and LRRK2 and it is thought that in addition to hereditary viruses and toxins are thought to cause theses mutations4. Parkinson’s disease is characterized by a fine pin-rolling tremor of the hands, rigidity, bradykinesia, an expressionless face called a mask like face and a parkinsonian gait characterized by small steps and reduced swing of the arms. Additional symptoms may be present and include difficulty in chewing and swallowing, depression, fatigue, dementia, speech problems, constipation, urinary problems and orthostatic hypotension7. Symptoms vary from patient to patient and can also have drastic emotional consequences for the patient. Diagnosis is often difficult as there are no tests available and is usually made on history and examination of the nervous system. Various treatment options are available and are mainly aimed at increasing the levels of dopamine in the brain. These include Levodopa, which is a precursor of dopamine and the nerve cells use synthesize dopamine. Other drugs like bromocriptine, apomorphine and pramipexole act by imitating the activity of dopamine4. There is no definitive cure for this disease and the treatment is only symptomatic. Adjuvant therapy may be given to relieve symptoms such as depression. Schizophrenia is another disorder that is caused by an imbalance between dopamine levels. The difference is that high levels of dopamine are found and the disease has mainly psychiatric manifestations. The cause of schizophrenia still remains unknown and this has been hampered largely by the different subtypes of the disease presenting a large variety of symptoms and involving different areas of the brain. It is also a feature of diseases like Alzheimer’s and Huntington’s disease9. Schizophrenia is characterized by auditory and visual hallucinations, delusions in which the patient thinks that his thoughts are being controlled externally and paranoid behavior believing someone is poisoning him, disorders of movement, cognitive dysfunction and emotional symptoms such as lack of interest in surroundings and social withdrawal2. Newer research has suggested that people with schizophrenia may experience an inability to smell certain items suggesting a disorder in the orbitofrontal region of the brain and surprisingly this sensory deficit has also been found in patients with Parkinson’s disease10. Other studies indicate that abnormalities in the amygdalia a region of the brain dealing with psychological processes may cause schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders8. Though the cause is still doubtful it has been seen that schizophrenia runs in families thus suggesting a genetic factor. Environmental factors and trauma during birth have also been suggested as causative factors. In the past agents used to treat schizophrenia like chlorpromazine and haloperidol blocked both D1 and D2 receptors and caused extra pyramidal side effects2. But the newer agents like clozapine have a high affinity for D1 receptors and thus do not cause unwanted extrapyramidal side effects. Other agents that have fewer side effects are risperidone and olanzepine and are very effective in controlling symptoms. All of these agents act by reducing levels of dopamine in the brain thus enabling the control of symptoms. The genetic predisposition to schizophrenia is now widely known. Family history of mental ailments such as schizoaffective disorders, bipolar disorders and depression, are a very strong indication and predisposition to developing schizophrenia. However, complex researches in the pattern of schizophrenic disorders among monozygotic twins have not been able to establish the full authenticity of the claim. The scientists claim that schizophrenia has been associated with the â€Å"shy gene† or 5-HTT gene. Currently, having a schizophrenic geneticity is only the first link; further development is dependant on other factors as well. (Schizophrenia. com, 2007)12 Many claim that there exists a link between schizophrenia and the environment. This is based on the fact that increased risk of schizophrenia within families cannot be singly attributed to the cause of it alone. The environmental factors that are thought to play an important role in causing schizophrenia include psychosocial, biological and physical factors, which are in effect from birth till maturity. It is now claimed that the interaction of the genetic and the social or environmental factors are very important in the development of disease in schizophrenic patients. (Tsuang, 2001) Many of the environmental effects that come into play do so in preterm and in early childhood. The highest contribution seems to be the state of labor, for example, hypoxia, CNS damage RH incompatibility of the mother and child etc. Also, other prenatal factors may include maternal depression, bereavement and flood and famine. Rubella infections and infections of the CNS are also thought to play a very important role in the development of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia. com, 2007)12 Obsessive-compulsive disorder is another psychiatric disorder that has at its cause an imbalance between neurotransmitters. In this case the neurotransmitter is serotonin. The areas of the brain thought to be involved in this disorder are the basal ganglia and the frontal lobe6. People with OCD have obsessional thoughts and t he compulsion to carry out those thoughts repeatedly3. Patients often have an awareness of their abnormal thought patterns and are distressed by them but are unable to control them. Common symptoms are patients exhibiting rituals and having unwanted thoughts and behavior patterns. Patients may have unwanted thoughts of a fear of germs or hurting someone called an obsession and compulsions are the acts of carrying out those obsessional thoughts like repeatedly washing and cleaning or repeatedly counting or checking things over and over again3. Sometimes it manifests in conjunction with other psychiatric disorders like schizophrenia and depression. It often resolves when these disorders are treated. It has also been seen with diseases like Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s chorea6. This disorder usually starts in adolescence and the patient is usually aware that he has some psychiatric ailment. The etiology is uncertain but Obsessive-compulsive disorder also has a genetic component. Though environmental factors are also a major cause, head trauma has also been implicated in certain cases6. Various treatment options are available including behavioral therapy. Drugs called selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors act by delaying the uptake of serotonin into the neuron and thus prolonging it’s action. This controls the deficiency of serotonin thought to be involved in causing obsessional symptoms. Drugs that are being used include fluoxetine, sertraline, fluvoxamine, paroxetine and clomipramine. Drug therapy used to treat other anxiety disorders is not effective in obsessive-compulsive disorder since it may not target the 5-HT receptors that are used by serotonin. Adams et al (2005)14 reported an up-regulation of serotonin receptors in caudate nuclei of OCD patients. Administration of SSRI drugs was tested in OCD patients. When untreated patients were compared with healthy normal individuals, it was found that cerebral 5-HT (2A) receptors binding were high in these patients. However, this difference was diminished when SSRI drug was administered to the patients. Different studies have reported that 5-HT reuptake inhibitors (SRIs) are most successful in treatment of OCD (Mansari Blier, 2006). This suggests serotonin depletion may be a vital cause of this disease. Normally, serotonin is actively involved in moderating flow of messages from orbital frontal cortex to thalamus via caudate nucleus. Various pharmacological studies have suggested 5-HT concentration in OFC is regulated by 5HT2 like receptors. SRI drugs modify 5-HT receptors regulation of serotonin and hence mostly used in treatment of OCD (Mansari Blier, 2006)15. Delgado and Moreno (1998)16 also reported that these drugs binding potency is related to hallucinogens. Pitterger et al (2006) reported that drugs that reduce elevated glutamate levels in brain might be effective in treatment of OCD. Pitterger et al (2006)17 suggested antiglutamatergic agent riluzole (Rilutek) play vital role in reducing glutamate hyperactivity in the cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical circuitry. Conclusion Overall a link has been found among various mental illnesses. This is evident by the fact that obsessive-compulsive disorder may be present in people who already have Schizophrenia or Parkinson’s disease. This overlap suggests that similar areas of the brain are involved in the etiology of these diseases and also that similar neurotransmitters may also be involved. Also interesting is the similarity in the deficiency in the sense of smell in both Parkinson’s and schizophrenia. As research progresses and advanced neuroimaging techniques become available it will become possible to interlink these diseases to one another. Special areas of interest may be the basal ganglia and the amygdalia as they are seen involved in a variety of neurological disorders. Parkinsons disease is a neurological disease, having a progressive nature. There are certain peculiar signs and symptoms that a Parkinson patient presents with; these include tremor, rigidity, akinesia or bradykinesia. Etiologically, Parkinsons disease is found in 1% of the population above 60 years of age. The ratio increases in people above 70 years of age. Although, also found in women, predominantly affects male gender. The role of environment in causing Parkinsonism is worth mentioning. Carbon mono-oxide and manganese, apart from certain pesticides play the major role in causing the disease. Parkinsonism among old aged people is idiopathic, but familial inheritance can be possible. A lot is not known about the role of genetics and inheritance of this disease, but occurrence in younger ages carries a higher probability of familial inheritance. It has been found that schizophrenia and Parkinson disease may share similarity by showing dysfunction of the prefrontal cortical areas of the brain. Also, both these conditions are the result or excess of deficiency of the levels of dopamine, which in turn dictates the treatment plan for such conditions. Similarly, patients suffering from Parkinson’s disease may show the presence of obsessive compulsive disorders, and the severity depends upon the length of the disease progression. The relation between these three conditions presenting in close relation with each other raise many questions about the progress of each disease, and whether treatments of each condition contain treatments for others as well. (Maia, 2003)13

Quantification of Opiates in Hair Samples

Quantification of Opiates in Hair Samples The analysis of controlled drug abuse has been primarily been carried out using urine samples. This is then complemented further with use of other biological fluids such as blood, sweat and saliva. There are many advantages as to why urine is a better biological fluid to use in comparison to the other biological fluids. Some these include: Less invasive No needles required to obtain the sample. Little medical supervision required Cost of conducting the test is lower Urinalysis however also has some limitations, some which are The drug detection window (DDW), the time frame in which the drug can be detected is somewhat short. It is typically 1-3 days. The sample can be easily contaminated; therefore testing is carried out on an altered sample. The sample can be easily changed if it is diluted. [2] There are also safety issues, if improper care is taken when handling the sample then sin contact may lead to infections. Abstinence can also provide inaccurate readings. If prior knowledge of when the test is going to be carried out, the user may abstain from using the controlled substance a few day prior to the test being carried out. Consumption of excessive water the user excessive amount of water are consumed then the sample given may be diluted, therefore providing an inaccurate concentration of the drug abuse. The cut off point- Urinalysis tends not to have a low enough of a cut off point. This will mistake controlled drug abuse with other possible metabolites of food. An example of this is the consumption of poppy seeds. This can be mistaken for morphine abuse. With further developments analytical techniques such as GC/MS hair samples are now the preferred sample to for the analysis of controlled drug abuse. This is then complemented with urinalysis and blood analysis. The advantages using hair include Drugs are commonly found in hair samples. Hair tends to be more of a qualitative test rather than a quantitative. It measures the concentration and frequency of the abuse, not just its presence. [3] A longer DDW measures the abuse the abuse over months and years, as appose to days. The chart above shows the concentration of a drug present urine and hair over a period of 12 days Hair is easier to handle poses no threat of infection if skin contact is made [4]. Hair is a more stable specimen it has a stable protein structure which cannot be easily contaminated [5] Little medical supervision or surgical intervention is required when obtaining the sample and is therefore seen to be less invasive. 1 HAIR 1.1  Anatomy of Hair Hair is made up of two distinct compartments, the shaft and the follicle/root. The shaft is the visible outer part, which comes out of the skin on the scalp. This part is often referred to as the dead part of hair. The reason for this is that the compartment within the skin, the follicle has a bulb shaped ending. Within the centre of the bulb there are cells, which are constantly dividing. As new cells are produced the older one are pushed up. As they are moving up they die slowly, which then form the hard shaft. Each strand of hair is made up of protein fibres called keratins. The chemical composition of keratin includes long chains of amino acids. One key example of these amino acids is cysteine, which contains sulphur. One key ability of sulphur is its ability to form bonds with other sulphur molecules, disulpher bridges. This is type of chemistry is present in hair. Adjacent keratin proteins link together to form disulphide bonds. The molecular interactions between these bonds are quite strong, and therefore it is quite hard to break the bond between them. The disulphide bonds can be broken using an alkali solution, as acidic solutions generally have no effect. Each strand consists of three layers the cuticle, cortex and medulla. The medulla is made up of cells that are quite large and hollow. The middle layer is the cortex, which makes up the majority of hair. The cells in this layer are tightly packed due to cross links between the keratin chains. The characteristic of hair are predominantly determined by this layer. This includes the colour of hair. Other characteristic determined by the cortex are the flexibility and strength of hair and the also the texture. The cuticle is the outermost layer and is formed by a single layer of overlapping tightly packed cells, which are transparent in appearance. This layer provides protection for the cortex and the medulla. This layer also characterises the strength of hair, as its strenuousness it is able to take the effects of any impact. Within the root is the follicle, this is a multilayered bulb like structure. Where each layer has its own function. At the base of the bulb is the dermal papilla. This is fed by small blood vessels. The function of these vessels is to provide essential nutrients and oxygen to the growing hair, it also removes any waste products. This is also the site of where signals are received, instructing hair to grow. [7] This is done by the presence of hormones and adrenogens. The adrenogens determine when hair grows and also the size of the follicle. Therefore influencing the physical properties of hairs, i.e. thickness. The hair follicle is covered by two sheaths, the inner and outer. The function of these sheath is to provide protection to the hair shaft. The inner sheath coats the follicle up to the opening of the sebaceous gland. The outer sheath coats the follicle all the way up to the gland. 1.2  The Hair Cycle Each strand of hair grows in a repeated three stage cycle, starting with the Anagen phase continuing to the Catagen phase and concluding with the Telogen phase. [8] Anagen phase: Hair growth phase Occurs with 85 % of hairs at any one time Duration: 2-6 Years Activity: Stimulus received at dermal papilla → Rapid reproduction of  keratinocytes within the bulb → Upward movement of keratinocytes → Formation of hair shaft Catagen Phase: Regression phase Duration: 1-2 Weeks Activity: Mitosis cycle ends and reabsorption occurs → The old keratinocytes  cells are then preceded by the new ones → Death of the previous  keratinocytes → Hair follicle size reduced by 1/6 → Degradation of  the lower part → Hair follicle becomes detached → Keratinocytes  cells attached to the follicle and the dermal enter the next phase. Telogen Phase: Rest phase Occurs with 15% of hairs Duration: 3 Months Activity: Dermal papilla is in a resting state → Towards the end of the stage,  the hair and follicle become detached from one another → a new  connection made between the lower part of the follicle and the dermal  papilla → Once the connection has been made, the cycle will start  again → Anagen phase → Formation of a new hair, if the previous  hair is still attached to the follicle then the new one will push out the  old hair [8] 1.4  Integration of Opiates Into Hair There have been several studies carried out that look into how drugs and their metabolites are integrated into hair. These studies have proposed some simple mechanisms as to how this is done. However an in depth explanation would require further studies to be carried out. As hair has a protein structure, it is able to trap the metabolites present in the blood into hair whilst the structure is being synthesised. This is auctioned whilst the hair is attached to the follicle, i.e. whilst the hair is growing. As the hair fibre is being formed, the drug and its metabolites become integrated. This will result in the drug and its metabolites to be stabilised within the keratin structure. The basic model proposes a mechanism that a drug and it metabolites may be integrated by passive diffusion. This is where the drug is passively diffused from the dermal capillaries into the growing hair cells. The point at which this passive diffusion occurs is when the hair is follicle length is at a length of approximately 1.2 1.5 mm long. This is the length between the hair matrix area and the area of the keratinised area. This suggests that if the hair is 1.2 1.5 mm long then drug exposure of about three days is available for analysis. A more detailed model can also explain how drugs and their metabolites can be integrated into hair. This takes into account different mechanisms occurring various times of the hair growth cycle, and at a number of different locations. The research into this multi-compartment theory was initiated by Henderson [10], but has since been backed up by further studies. An example of this is, the movement of the drugs and its metabolites from sweat and Sebum. The integration of the drugs and their metabolites occurs once the hair has been formed. Studies have shown that the concentration of drugs in sweat is higher than the concentration found in blood. This would therefore explain the high concentrations if drugs found in hair. [10] Drugs can also be integrated into hair from the external environment, i.e. from air, water and hair treatments such as hair dying, and perming. As well as the external environment drugs can also be integrated with hair by intradermal transfer. This happens deep within the skin compartment, where highly lipid soluble drugs can penetrate into the skin layer and then become integrated into hair. [11] Also melanin content may have some influence on the drug being transferred. The drug may associate with melanin sites that are present in the skin. This will result in the transfer of the drug and its metabolites as well as melanin pigment molecule. The actual properties of the drug being integrated will also ultimately influence which mechanism is used for the drug to be integrated with hair. Examples of these properties include the structural, chemical, and physical properties. When looking specifically at the structural properties, there are three factors that will influence the mechanism undertaken to integrate the hair. [13] These include: The melanin content of the hair The lipophilicity of the drug The basicity of the drug The influence of melanin on the integration of the drug with has been examined in several studies. A sample of grey hair was analysed. It can be seen that the sample contains white hair and pigmented hair. It was found that even though the root had been placed under the same conditions, i.e. the same concentration of the drug and its metabolites in the blood the pigmented had ten times the concentration of the basic drug compared to the hair sample that was not pigmented. [14] This study carried out by M. Rothe et al prompted further studies to be carried out. These looked at the difference in drug concentration between black, brown, blonde and red coloured hair. The results obtained from this study also found the correlating results. The integration of uncharged organic i.e. lipophilic drugs can infiltrate the membrane with ease, as well as being able to diffuse along the concentration gradient. This however is not the case with lipophobic or charged drugs. When they try to infiltrate the membrane a drug resistant barrier is formed, therefore restricting the drug from entering the membrane. Also basic and acid drugs, are highly ionised can enter the membrane if the charge they have is neutralised. This is achieved by deprotonation or protonation. This suggests that the pkA of the drug is an important factor, when it is trying to enter the melanocyte cells so it can be integrated with hair. Studies have also found that the intracellular pH of melanocytes typically ranges from 3 to about 5. Due to this chemical property, there is an increase in the accumulation of drugs at pigmented sites. However this is not the case for all acidic drugs, so this is why they are often found in lower concentrations. [13] 2. Opiates and Opioids 2.1  Derivation and active component The opiates are derived from opium. Opium is released from immature seeds that grow within the poppy plant, also known as papaverus somniferum. The active component from which the opiates are synthesised, is known as the latex. This is a white milk like emulsion fluid that is released, when an incision made on the green wall of the poppy plant seed. The latex is removed typically between 1-3 weeks after the poppy plant has flowered. The white latex is then dried, leading to the formation of brown coloured opium. They are a group of about twenty opiate alkaloids. An opiates can however is a synthetic chemical/drug that can be synthesised using an opiate as starting material, or be fully synthesised to mimic the action of an opiate. Morphine is the most prominent opiate present within opium, making up 10%. Codeine is second, which makes up approximately 5% of opium. The other main constituents of opium include thebaine, noscapine and papaverine. Some of the twenty alkaloids can be synthesised further in laboratories They can be synthesised using an opiate as starting material, or be fully synthesised to mimic the action of an opiate. An example of this is the synthesis of heroin from morphine. There are also opioids that can be synthesised fully in a laboratory. An example of this type of opioid is methadone. 2.2  Classification The opiates can be classified into three main categories, natural opiates, semi synthetic opioids and fully synthetic opioids. 2.2.1  Natural Opiates These are chemical/drugs that are synthesised directly from the latex that is produced from the seedlings of the poppy plant. Once the latex has been dried it is now known as opium. The natural opiates are then extracted from the dried opium. The most abundant chemical/drug present in the opium is morphine, accounting for 10 % of opium. The second most abundant natural opiate is codeine, account for approximately 5 % of opium. Thebaine is the third most abundant opiate, accounting for approximately 3% of opium. Thebaine The chemical composition of morphine and codeine is quite complex. This is why it is not feasible to synthesise them in a laboratory. This therefore means that the best method of obtaining these opiates is through direct extraction from the poppy plant. 2.2.2  Semi Synthetic Opiates These types of opiates are synthesised using the natural opiates, such morphine as starting points. There are a vast amount of semi synthetic opiates. One example of a natural opiate being used to synthesise a semi synthetic opiate is the production of heroin from morphine. HEROIN The reaction of morphine with acetic anhydride results in the formation of diacytylmorphine, also known as heroin. Morphine as well as the other natural opiates are the starting material for many semi synthetic opiates. The table below shows examples of these semi synthetic opiates. Semi Synthetic Opiate Also Known As Starting Natural Opiate Chemical Structure Hydromorphone Dihydromorphinone and Dimorphone Morphine Hydrogenated ketone Hydrocodone Dihydrocodeinone Codeine and Thebaine Oxycodone Dihydrohydroxycodeinone Thebaine The structure is similar to codeine, but differs in 3 ways 1 -hydroxyl group at C-14, codeine has a H 2- has a dihydro between C 7,8, codeine has double C bond 3- carbonyl group present instead of a hydroxyl group Oxymorphone 14-Hydroxydihydromorphinone Thebaine or Morphine Esterification of the hydroxyl groups Desomorphine Dihydrodesoxymorphine Morphine Remove 6-hydroxy group Saturation of the 7,8 C double bond Heroin Diacetylmorphine Morphine- Addition of acetyl ester groups at C 3,6, therefore diacetyl ester of morphine Codethyline Ethylmorphine Codeine or Morphine the OC2H5 group substituted for an aromatic 3-OH 2.2.3  Fully Synthetic Opiates The fully synthetic opioids are completely chemically different to opiates, however the mode of action on the body. The fully synthetic opiates are able to mimic the way morphine acts on the body. The first type of fully synthetic opiates that was synthesised was called meperidine. This was then with the production of methadone. Some other examples of fully synthetic opiates are fentanyl, pethidine, tramadol and dextropropoxyphene. The advantages of synthesising these synthetic opiates are that the potency of the chemical/drug can be rapidly increased, in comparison to that of morphine. 2.2.4  Endogenous Opiates These are natural substances that are produced within the brain. The characteristics of the endogenous opiates are similar to that of the alkaloid opiates that derived from the poppy plant, commonly known as exogenous opiates. The endogenous opiates interact with opiates receptors in the same way as the exogenous opiates i.e. causing analgesia and euphoria. Examples of these endogenous opiates are Endorphins Enkephalins Dynorphins 2.3 Mode of Action of Opiates Opiates are chemicals that act on the body in two ways. The first is by reducing or stopping chemical signals, therefore having sedative effects. This will result in a reduction reaction time in which the body reacts to pain, also helps to decrease the awareness of pain and finally helps increase the tolerance of pain. The second way in which the opiates act within the body is to create a feeling of elation. The mechanisms that allow the opiates to behave this way is achieved by the interactions that occur at the opiate receptors. The opiate receptors are located mainly in the central nervous system, i.e. the brain and spinal cord and also within the respiratory centre. The body also produces it own natural opiates, known as endogenous opiates. Some examples of these endogenous opiates are endorphins, enkephalins and dynorphins. They are all released naturally to interact with the opiate receptors. The endorphins are located in the hypothalamus, and are released in response to stress. The enkephalins are present within the central nervous system, and act on the pain pathways. The dynorphins are also located in central nervous system, the spinal cord. They are also associated with the pain pathways. These natural opiates interact with three main opiate receptors mu, kappa and delta, which are g-protein coupled. The opiates that are derivative of the poppy plant are called exogenous opiates. They also interact with the mu, kappa and opiate receptors. If the use of the exogenous opiate s is abused, adverse effects. As well as the opiates being able to block pain, they also make the user feel elated. This is the result of the opiates reacting with mu opiate receptors. The same receptor that the endogenous opiates, endorphin reacts with. Due to these properties it is often the case that opiates are used recreationally as appose to medically. 3. Extraction of Opiates from Hair 3.1 In order to determine the presence of in a hair sample, the drugs need to be extracted from the hair structure. The reason for this is that there have not been any developments in analytical techniques that analyse the hair and drug when they are combined in one structure. This is why extraction steps are taken to analyse the drug separately from the hair structure. The choice of solvent used for the extraction process must take into consideration the chemical structure of the drug, and what response they will have to the solvent. 3.2  Division of hair in to segments Hair must be divided into segments prior to the opiates being extracted. As hair grows at a rate 0.5 inches per month [ref -see notes], it provides a timeline of when and at what concentration the opiates we consumed. The hair sample must be all be of the same length prior to being analysed. It is quite difficult to quantify at which period of time the opiate was consumed if a clump of hair is used as appose to a single strand of hair. it is generally get harder the longer the distance from the root. This is why it is beneficial to analyse the hair sample in sections. [25-22] Studies carried out, have found the following divisions of a 45 cm length provide the optimum analysis. Staring from the root the following divisions are made: 4 x 0.5 cm 3 x 1.0 cm 2 x 2.0 cm 2 x 3.0 cm 2 x 5.0 cm 2 x 10 cm 3.3  Decontamination of hair Prior to any extraction techniques being carried out on hair, any external contaminants must be removed. Although the analytical techniques analyse the opiates that are incorporated within the hair structure, sometimes other substances may be detected if the decontamination process is not actioned correctly. The results of the analysis may account for surface contaminants that may have made contact with hair, i.e. if the user has touched a substance and subsequently touches their hair. This will result in a positive result eng obtained even though the user has not consumed the substance. Other possible sources of these contaminants may be from hair care products such as shampoos and conditioners. Also any hair styling products, such waxes and hair sprays also need to be removed. As well these sweat and any fatty sebum released from the sebaceous glands need to be removed. Also environmental contaminants such dust need to be discarded. If the sample prior to being cut was exposed to any drugs in the environment, this step will remove this source of contamination. The reason for decontaminating the hair sample is to prevent any background noise when the sample is analysed. The choice of the decontaminant has to have specific properties. This is because it has to remove any external contaminants, however not be able to remove any of the drugs and its metabolites from the hair sample. [15] Non protic solvents such as dichlormomethane and acetone are good decontaminates as they do not swell the hair, so extraction will not occur. Using a 300mg sample of hair is used. It is placed into an ultrasonic bath, There are series wash cycles performed on the hair sample, and are usually initiated with two washes with dichloromethane. A typical experiment conducted in [16], which tried to determine the opiate content in hair carried out four different wash cycle, on four different samples of hair. 20 ml of dichloromethane, 15 ml of acetone, 15 ml of methanol, 10 ml of methanol. 20 ml of isopropanol, 15 ml of acetone, 15 ml of methanol, 10 ml of methanol. 20 ml of dichloromethane, 15 ml of isopropanol, 15 ml of methanol, 10 ml of methanol. 20 ml of n-hexane , 15 ml of acetone, 15 ml of methanol, 10 ml of methanol. This experiment showed that a mixture of solvents could be used to wash the hair samples. 3.4  Disintegration of opiates from hair structure As there are currently no analytical techniques that test for opiates whilst they are integrated within the hair structure. This means that the hair structure must first of all be digested and then the drugs and its metabolites are extracted, to determine which drugs are present. There are various solvents used to extract opiates and its metabolites from hair. 3.4.1  Extraction with Methanol Methanol is a good solvent used to extract opiates from hair. It is hydrophilic, so it can enter the hair structure quite easily. The action of methanol is that it causes the hair to swell up. This will result in the drugs integrated within the hair structure to be released. This is done by the opiates diffusing out. This extraction is carried out in an ultrasonic bath. This helps to degrade the hair structure. There are some impurities still present once this methanol extraction has been carried out. So a secondary clean up is still required. [17] There are some disadvantages to this extraction method. This is because the amount of drug obtained from the extraction procedure, is quantitatively less than other extraction methods used to derive opiates hair from hair. However the main disadvantage of using is that using methanol extraction, this is that the opiate extracted can sometimes be hydrolysed. An example is the conversion of 6-monoacetylmprphine (Heroin) to morphine. This results in the non detection of monoacetylmprphine (heroin). [13] Therefore when trying to detect the opiate Heroin, it can be hydrolysed to morphine. Therefore resulting in the heroin present in hair to go undetected. [21] 3.4.2  Extraction with a buffer solution This extraction procedure is widely used to extract opiates and their metabolites from hair. It generally seen to be one the more successful methods. A typical buffer solution would be a phosphate buffer, at a pH of approximately 6.4 7.6. [18] In comparison to methanol phosphate buffer are seen to be a cleaner approach of extracting opiates. In addition to use the phosphate sometimes additional enzyme are added to help to determine intricate metabolites. A typical enzymes used are combination of glucuronidase and arylsulphitase. 3.4.3  Supercritical Fluid Extraction This method uses a supercritical fluids such carbon dioxide (CO2) to extract opiates from hair. It is seen to be advantageous over other extraction methods, as supercritical fluids have specific properties that allow them to be more efficient in extracting opiates and their metabolites from hair samples. Some examples of these properties include that physically, supercritical fluids are less viscous than other solvents. This in turn allows them to move more freely. [19] They have an increased speed of extraction, in particular with opiates. Research carried out into the extraction of opiates from hair using supercritical fluids by Edder et al. It was found that use of the supercritical fluid carbon dioxide, not only speeded up the extraction process but also retrieved a high yield. It was found that 100 % of the morphine that was present in the hair sample was extracted, along with 98.2% codeine, and 92% of methadone. This was all done in a 25 minute procedure. [20] Other advantages of using supercritical fluids to extract opiates from hair samples are that it has been found that supercritical fluids tend not to contaminate the samples, in comparison to solid phase extraction and liquid liquid extraction. The efficiency of this method also allows the procedure to be more automated in comparison to other extraction techniques. 3.4.4  Enzymatic Digestion of the Hair matrix This method primarily uses the enzymes pronase and protein kinase A to break down the hair structure. The procedure requires the hair sample to be placed into the enzyme mixture at temperature between 40 -60oc for approximately 6 12 hours. [22] The action of these enzymes is to breakdown the disulphide bonds that are present within the hair structure. Often dithiothreitol is used to aid pronase and protein kinase A, by decreasing the time taken to extract the opiates and their metabolites from the hair sample. Other enzymes used to breakdown the hair structure include glucuronidase and arylsulphitase. The disadvantage of using this method in comparison to other extraction techniques is that some of the sample may be altered prior to them being for the analytical tests. An example is the antibodies that are required for radio immunoassays, may be denatured by excessive heating required by this extraction process. 3.4.5  Digestion with Sodium Hydroxide. The use of alkaline solutions such as sodium hydroxide in digesting hair for the extraction of opiates has proven to be very compatible. This is because unlike acid solvents the constituents of the opiates are not hydrolysed along with the hair structure. An example of study conducted by Aldo Polettini et al found that in some case hair samples of heroin users, when digested in methanol hydrolysed the heroin to morphine. Whereas the hair sample that was digested in sodium hydroxide successfully hydrolysed the hair structure but did not alter the opiate and its constituents. [ref] Typical experiments digest hair samples in a 2M concentration of sodium hydroxide, set at a temperature of about 79 °c for 60minutes. 4. Gas Chromatography / Mass Spectrometry Analysis of Hair Samples 4.1  How GC/MS works Gas Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry are two separate analytical techniques that are used together to quantitatively detect low concentrations of opiates. This analytical technique has exceptional specificity to the detecting in opiates in hair, with levels ranging from nanograms to picograms. 4.1.1  Gas Chromatography The gas chromatograph is a heated unit that has thin silica capillary columns, which have a cross linked silicone layer. The opiate sample is injected into an inlet and heated. The sample is heated until the boiling point of the last part of the opiate sample has been exceeded by approximately 20 ËÅ ¡C. This is typically between 200 260 ËÅ ¡C. This leads to the vaporisation of the opiate sample. The vaporised opiate sample will move to the beginning section of the silica capillaries. This is aided by an inert gas, typically helium. The temperature is somewhat reduced at the silica capillaries, typically 120ËÅ ¡C. This will result in the condensation of the opiate sample. The reason for this condensation step is to ensure that all of the constituents of the opiate sample commence forward from a uniform point. The opiate molecule will start to disintegrate as it moves along the capillary column. This disintegration is caused by varied physiochemical interactions that occur with the different constituents of the opiate molecule, during the stationary phase. The time taken for each constituent or metabolite to move of the opiate sample to move through the capillary tube, from the point of injection is referred to as the retention time. [28] 4.1.2  Mass Spectrometry Once the separate constituents of the opiate sample leave the capillary column, they begin to enter the mass spectrometer. The compartment between the gas chromatograph and the mass spectrometer is under high vacuum, which have quadrapoles that cover the end of the silica capillary. Now that the sample is moving along from the GC they are met by a beam of electrons, resulting in the sample to become ionised. The quadrapoles split the different constituents of the opiate samples, in relation to their electrical charge and their molecular weight. An electrical pulse is generated as the ion detector acts on the charged opiate constituents. This is all recorded on to library computer, which generates a spectrum of the opiate constituents behaviour within the mass spectrometer. [29] A Typical GC/MS A capillary tube COMPUTER 4.2  A typical GC/MS procedure on hair samples of opiate abusers. 4.2.1  Typical GC Conditions The type of capillary column used to quantification of the opiates is a HP 5MS, 5% phenyl methyl siloxane, with dimensions of 30m x 0.25m x 0.25 µm film thickness. The temperature of the inlet is set to 230 °c. The inert gas used was 99.999% helium, which flows at a rate of 1ml/min. The temperature of the oven is held at 150 °c for 1 minute. The GC is then programmed to increase the temperature in the following increments. [30] 4.2.2  Mass spectrometry Conditions The mass detector was set up to operate at voltage of 70eV. The temperature at the quadrupol

Stability over Everything :: essays research papers

â€Å"Stabilità ¤t à ¼ber alles† The Transition of German and Hungarian Politics since 1989 There can be little doubt when studying the political transition within Germany and Hungary that since 1989 there has been a change in ideology since the collapse of the communist regime in Eastern Europe and the reunification of East and West Germany. Nevertheless it must be acknowledged that the truly astonishing events of 1989/90, â€Å"which even at the beginning of 1989 could not have been predicted, brought about the most exciting and far far-reaching changes in life and society in Germany† and Hungary since 1945. Through the various paradigms Globalization, Europeanisation and Democratisation, we are able to come to an understanding of the politics in transition and also highlight and explain several key aspects of the political, economic, social and cultural life in contemporary Germany and Hungary. The trend of ‘globalization’ is attracting more and more attention and with this is â€Å"transforming the historical approach that â€Å"state, society and economy are, as it were co-extensive within the same national boundaries. The international economic system, in which states draw the borderline between the domestic economy and foreign trade relations, is being metamorphosed into a transnational economy in the wake of the globalization of markets†. These trends are mirrored by the current emphasis of Germany to grow as a major leader within the European Union and Hungary in their approach for acceptance by the European Union as a member. Since the fall of the Berlin Wall, we have seen Germany come forward as one of the forefront leaders in the European market. â€Å"From an economic perspective, globalization has brought incontestable welfare gains to Germany and Europe through an enhanced international division of labour† (e.g. trade and investment). â€Å"Yet globalization has also exposed and intensified weaknesses in growth, investment, and innovation in Europe and has led to exceedingly high unemployment rates†. For ten years now â€Å"the German economy, has been transferring DM 150 billion in net payments from the West to the East. This is not a symptom of the economy’s weakness, but rather a symptom of strength, and is maintained by the fact that few economies in the world could do this successfully, and none is required to do so†. Undoubtedly it puts an enormous strain on the German economy, but it is shouldering it well. Even though Germany has been transferring money to the East , it has still managed to register a â€Å"trade surplus of DM 100 billion annually†.

herody The Imperfect Hero of Homers Odyssey Essay -- Odyssey essays

The Imperfect Hero of The Odyssey   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In literature, a bold character or hero is often the principle character. In the epic poem The Odyssey there are many immortals, but only one hero, Odysseus. The differences between the immortals and the hero are few. The god-like Odysseus is plagued with the human weaknesses of pettiness, self-doubt, and dependence on the pity of others. Odysseus reveals his pettiness when he amuses himself with humorous guile. Odysseus not only uses his cunning at the expense of his enemies, but he also uses his cunning and guile as a way of entertaining himself. After Odysseus tells the Cyclops his name is "Noman," Odysseus stabs Polyphemus in the eye and Polyphemus cries for help saying, "Friends, Noman is murdering me be craft" (87). Odysseus’ power over his enemy is once again confirmed by his wit more than by his physical force. Although Odysseus is a wise man, this wit is only useful in the short picture. After he and his men get away from Polyphemus, Polyphemus’ father, Poseidon, causes the mortal men trouble. To avoid such trouble, Odysseus could have choose not to amuse himself. Odysseus often loses sight of the greater vision, which is returning to his family. Odysseus risks his return by a moment of testosterone-driven pettiness. The moment comes when Odysseus challenges Irus by saying, "†¦do not challenge me too far with show of fists, or you may rouse my rage; and old as I am, I still might stain your beast and lips with blood" (174). When the beggar/Odysseus fights and wins against Irus it is a miracle that no one became suspicious of Odysseus. The suitors were shocked that an old beggar, as Odysseus appeared to be, would be that strong. If anyone put two and two together then Od... ...One thing that can be learned from Odysseus is: no matter how good one is, one is still a human; and part of being a human is to learn to overcome one’s flaws Works Cited and Consulted Griffin, Jasper, Homer: The Odyssey   Cambridge UP 1987 Heubeck, Alfred, J.B. Hainsworth, et al. A commentary on Homer's Odyssey. 3 Vols. Oxford PA4167 .H4813 1988 Jones, Peter V. Homer's Odyssey : a companion to the translation   of Richmond Lattimore.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Carbondale, IL : Southern Illinois University Press, c1988. PA4167 .J66 1988 Murnaghan, Sheila,   Disguise and Recognition in the Odyssey, Princeton UP 1987 Peradotto, John , Man in the Middle Voice: Name and Narration in the Odyssey, Princeton UP 1990 Stanford, William Bedell. Homer's Odyssey. 2 Vols. Macmillan   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Thalmann, William G., The Odyssey : an epic of return. New York : Twayne Publishers. PA4167 .T45 1992

Film Analysis of King Kong Produced by Merian C. Cooper Essay examples

Film Analysis of King Kong Produced by Merian C. Cooper A classic adventure-fantasy film in the earlier talking films is King Kong (1933). King Kong was conceived by director/producer Merian C. Cooper. Cooper tells the story of an attractive blonde woman and a frightening gigantic ape-monster who are immersed in a Beauty and the Beast type tale. A major section of the film is the struggle on Skull Island between the filmmakers, the islanders, and the other resident of the island. The other resident being a mutant creature who must also fight civilization when it is brought to New York City for display. From the beginning of the movie, its screenplay by James Creelman and Ruth Rose foretells the coming terror. The film included many revolutionary technical innovations for its time, and some of the best stop-action animation ever sequences and special effects (by Willis O'Brien) ever captured. King Kong was a film with many wonderful sound and cinematic techniques. The filmed contained a dramatic musical score, which helped set the mood of the film. The sound effects were also unusual for films of its time. The director used different animal’s sounds to create Kong’s voice. The narrative of the story was one that was of interest of movie goes. In King Kong the story unfolds pretty directly in front of you so there is not a lot of confusion. To me the film is a montage not mise-en-scene. The story is told in a straightforward manner that doesn’t s...

Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X Essay

Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X are very prominent African American individuals throughout history. â€Å"Malcolm x and Martin Luther king were similar in some ways and different another ways†. Martin Luther king Jr and Malcolm x were similar in many ways for example, martin Luther and Malcolm x were both black. Their fathers were minister’s .they both became minister .they were both national leader they were both arrested. Malcolm x and Martin Luther king wanted to see black people in the best possible position .martin Luther king Jr and Malcolm x were both religious figures that used religious to provide structure morality courage. Determination and unity in black people. Both Malcolm x and martin Luther Jr were fighting for civil rights non-violence. Both X and King spread their message through powerful, hard-hitting speeches. Nevertheless, their intentions were delivered in different styles and purposes. Malcolm X and Martin Luther King are both remembered as l eaders who fought for a difference in black America. Both tried to bring hope to blacks in the United States. They also tried to instill within blacks power and strength so they could rise above all the hatred that surrounded them, but both of them had very different ways of promoting their message and they were both assassinated. Martin Luther king Jr and Malcolm x were different in many ways for example, martin Luther king was a devout Christian, Malcolm x was a Muslim. Martin Luther king wanted to get things accomplished without aggression or violence and Malcolm x did not. Martin Luther king wanted everyone to coexist peacefully and wanted to be counted as equal, Malcolm x wanted there to be a clear segregation of white people and black people In America. King was brought up by a rich black family, with a good education, and a good chance at life. He was a black aristocrat, and a wealthy man. Malcolm X was brought up in the ‘ghetto’, and had to learn to defend himself against racist white children. He was deprived of his father, who was found dead, murdered by a white mob. His mother became mentally ill so he was sent to a foster home. This important because I got to learn many differences and similarities between Martin Luther king Jr and Malcolm x .as a result I’ve learned many things about martin Luther king Jr and Malcolm x that I’ve never learned before.